Designed to Divide
Sally Ayuk, MS
Transportation Equity Senior Research Fellow
Introduction
Where people live, gather, and seek care deeply shapes their chances to thrive. For many Black communities, access to welcoming “third places” — such as parks, libraries, churches, and cafes – as well as affordable, nearby healthcare and mental health services, should not be a privilege, but a right. These spaces and services are vital building blocks for social connection, mental wellness, and overall community well-being. Yet the legacies of disinvestment, transportation barriers, rising costs, and inequitable infrastructure continue to limit who can benefit from these spaces and services. Designed to Divide demonstrates how neighborhood design, affordability, and access intersect in three Black-majority cities: Detroit, Michigan, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and Houston, Texas. This research examines how gaps in access, proximity, and affordability limit opportunities for connection, care, and well-being. It also demonstrates how closing these gaps necessitates intentional investment in the places, systems, and policies that enable people to feel seen, supported, and mentally and physically healthy. Understanding the barriers to accessing supportive community spaces and essential health services is key to shaping practical, community-driven solutions that bring care and support within reach for the communities most affected. These cities were selected not only because of their significant Black populations but also because they represent diverse regions: Detroit in the Midwest, Philadelphia in the Northeast, and Houston in the Southwest, thereby providing a comparison across different geographic regions, transportation systems, and urban development influences on health and social outcomes across different settings. While these two reports focus on these three cities, the challenges and patterns identified here are common across many American cities. The lessons drawn from them can help inform efforts in other communities facing similar transportation and infrastructure challenges.
Within this website, you will find executive summaries of each report’s findings, an interactive map that helps users visualize spatial disparities in access to third places and health services, and community-level profiles that illuminate inequities across the three cities. Together, these tools aim to help users understand where and why these disparities persist and identify potential community-driven solutions.
Starting in the 1930s, the discriminatory federal housing policy of redlining, which withheld loans and public investment from Black communities, exacerbated these transportation and accessibility disparities. In Detroit, neighborhoods with Black residents were labeled “hazardous” by the federal government, which redlined the city in 1939, depriving them of decades of investment and reinforcing segregation.[1] Philadelphia’s redlined areas faced plummeting property values, disinvestment, and physical decay, creating a self-fulfilling cycle of neglect.[2] In Houston, freeways deliberately followed redlining maps from the 1930s, which had designated minority neighborhoods as high-risk for investment, entrenching racial divisions and concentrating poverty into Black communities.[3] These historical injustices continue to shape transportation access and the availability of third places. Urban infrastructure projects and systemic racial inequities have profoundly shaped the accessibility of third places in American cities in the 20th and 21st centuries. In many cases, these projects have physically severed or displaced the communal spaces where social life once thrived. The legacy of highway construction, rooted in President Dwight D. Eisenhower’s 1956 Federal-Aid Highway Act, has disproportionately dismantled Black neighborhoods. In Detroit, the construction of I-375 in 1959 dismantled vibrant Black communities known for their cultural and economic vitality.[4],[5] Philadelphia’s Vine Street Expressway, completed in 1991, severed Chinatown and adjacent neighborhoods, while I-95 displaced working-class families and isolated communities from the Delaware River.[6],[7] Similarly, Houston’s I-45, built in the 1950s and 1960s and undergoing expansion today, has exacerbated displacement and gentrification in historically Black neighborhoods such as Independence Heights and the Fifth Ward.[8] These projects, while framed as progress, have left lasting scars, limiting access to third places, eroding social networks, and deepening spatial and racial inequalities that persist today.
Health Disparities and Social Isolation in Majority Black Cities
Executive Summary
This report examines how disparities in healthcare access, provider availability, and transportation affect health outcomes and mental well-being in Detroit, MI; Philadelphia, PA; and Houston, TX. Black urban communities encounter substantial barriers to affordable, accessible, and timely care. These challenges are rooted in historic disinvestment, structural inequities, and under-resourced mental health systems. This analysis illustrates the interplay between neighborhood infrastructure, insurance gaps, and social isolation, emphasizing specific, community-driven solutions that enhance access to both mental and physical healthcare. Recent changes under H.R. 1, the One Big Beautiful Bill Act–including new Medicaid work requirements and stricter eligibility checks set to go into effect on January 1, 2027–will make closing these gaps more challenging. To mitigate these impacts, states can implement streamlined reporting systems, provide assistance with documentation, and expand hardship exemptions to protect vulnerable populations from losing coverage.
- Out-of-pocket spending is low but masks deeper gaps: Residents in all three cities spend a lower percentage of income on healthcare than the national average, but this does not mean care is equitably accessible. These disparities signal the need for targeted policies that expand access to coverage for uninsured populations, particularly young adults, who experience the highest uninsured rates and are most likely to rely on employer-based insurance.
- Depression and social isolation are widespread: All three cities report depression rates exceeding the 18.5% national average. This reflects concerningly high depression rates and emphasizes the urgent need to provide safe, accessible third places that can help alleviate social isolation and strengthen community belonging.
- Severe shortages in mental health professionals: Nearly all of Houston (96%) and Detroit (98%) are federally designated Mental Health Professional Shortage Areas (MHPSAs). These gaps in staffing and service capacity highlight the urgent need to strengthen the mental health care infrastructure and expand access to qualified providers.
- Transportation shapes access to care: Access to mental health services varies sharply by city, with distance and transit playing a critical role. In Black urban communities, long distances to care–especially when paired with limited transportation options–can significantly hinder timely access and deepen disconnection from essential mental health support.
- Solutions must address systems, not just services: Federal and state policies must prioritize expanding marketplace insurance coverage and Medicaid access through targeted outreach, mobile mental health units, walkable neighborhood design, and investments in the mental health workforce to strengthen neighborhood connections, close gaps in care, improve access, and foster strong social connections. However, the introduction of an 80-hour monthly work requirement threatens to widen existing disparities, particularly in communities already facing limited access.
The Price of Belonging: Reclaiming Access to Community Spaces
Executive Summary
Access to “third places” — inclusive community spaces such as parks, libraries, churches, barbershops, and cafés – influence people’s health, sense of connection, and opportunities to belong. However, for many residents living in low-income neighborhoods and communities of color, historic disinvestment, transportation barriers, and rising costs significantly limit access to these vital spaces. This report demonstrates how affordability, transit access, and the spatial availability of third places impact residents’ ability to connect and feel supported in Detroit, MI; Philadelphia, PA; and Houston, TX. Cities that aim to build stronger, healthier, and more connected communities must prioritize not only the creation of third places but also ensure that they are accessible and welcoming to people of all backgrounds. Reclaiming access means investing in safe ways to reach third places, keeping them affordable, and ensuring they reflect the communities they support. When cities plan for belonging, everyone has a chance to connect and thrive.
- Cost shapes access: Cities with more costly spaces risk leaving out lower-income residents. Research shows that when affordable third places are lacking, access becomes unequal, highlighting the need for policies that prioritize investment in free or low-cost community spaces to promote social inclusion.
- Churches remain community anchors: Churches consistently serve as the highest percentage of free third places, emphasizing their unique role as trusted gathering spots for connection and support. It is important for states to recognize this role and consider ways to empower churches through partnerships, resources, or programming that strengthen their capacity to serve as inclusive community hubs.
- Transportation is a make-or-break link: Lack of sidewalks and long distances can mean that many people, especially those without access to cars, struggle to easily access community spaces. These disparities call attention to the need for federal and state policies that invest in walkable infrastructure and equitable transit access. Targeted funding for sidewalks, shuttle services, and community-led spaces can further strengthen connections and foster a genuine sense of belonging.
- Neighborhood gaps leave people isolated: Neighborhoods that lack third places make it more difficult for people to connect, receive support, or establish trust in their communities. These gaps call attention to the urgent need for policymakers to prioritize place-based investments, especially in underserved areas, ensuring that all communities have access to safe, welcoming spaces that build social capital and civic trust.
- Policy action is critical: Federal initiatives like the Justice40 Initiative are essential tools that can be utilized to channel resources into underserved communities, helping to expand access to safe, inclusive public spaces and advance long-term equity goals.
Mapping the Divide
How to Use the Maps
The maps below explore census tracts in Detroit, MI, Philadelphia, PA, and Houston, TX. The maps illustrate the distribution of third places, with larger circles indicating a higher concentration and smaller symbols indicating fewer third places within each census tract. Driving distances to mental health services and transit distances to third places are shown alongside data on insurance coverage, healthcare spending, mental health outcomes, and provider availability. They are shaded on a color scale to reflect varying levels of access and need across neighborhoods.
- Mental Health: Subcategories include Mental Health Treatment Facilities, Social Isolation, Annual Medical Spending, Lack of Social Emotional Support, Depression, and detailed insurance coverage data by age groups, along with uninsured rates for each age group.
- Transportation: Subcategories include Distance to Nearest Transit Options and Driving Distance to the Nearest Mental Health Facilities.
Third places can be overlaid on any map view by selecting the “View Third Places” option. Choose from Free and Publicly Available, Affordable, or Expensive spaces to see where community gathering places are located within each tract.
You can compare up to five census tracts at once, within or across cities. To compare, click inside a tract boundary and select “Compare This Tract.” You’ll get a side-by-side view of all Mental Health, Transportation, and Third Place details for the tracts you select.
A legend is provided at the bottom of the map window to help you interpret data ranges, with a color scale indicating low to high values for each indicator.
Note: Data on mental health staffing shortages and the population served versus the underserved were not available for Philadelphia.
Community Profiles
Sex by Age
Age and gender play a significant role in determining who is most affected by limited access to third places, shaping opportunities for social connection and community engagement.
Houston has a larger share of working-age adults (35–64), while Philadelphia has slightly more young adults (18–34), highlighting the need for accessible spaces that support employment networks, social life, and mental health. All three cities have more females than males, but Detroit and Philadelphia show gender patterns that can shape caregiving roles, safety concerns, and reliance on public transit. These demographic differences influence who benefits from third places and who faces greater barriers to connection, health, and opportunity.
Disability by Age
Disability prevalence across age groups underscores the importance of accessible third places and transportation.
Young adults (18–34) have the highest disability rates in all three cities, particularly in Houston (35%), where overall population and need are greatest. Working-age adults also show substantial disability rates, especially in Detroit (23%). Although seniors (65+) have slightly lower disability rates, they still face mobility and access challenges. The graph is also disaggregated by sex, and females 35-64 have the highest rates. Childhood disabilities are notably high in Philadelphia and Detroit, indicating the need for inclusive, family-friendly third places. Across all cities, females experience higher disability rates, highlighting the intersection of gender and access barriers that can limit engagement with community spaces.
Race
Although Philadelphia is more racially diverse overall, it remains racially segregated, with White and Black residents comprising the dominant groups and often concentrated in separate neighborhoods, shaping unequal access to infrastructure, services, and health outcomes. Houston, by contrast, is the most racially diverse of the three, with a growing multiracial population and large proportions of both White and Black residents. This diversity offers both opportunities and challenges in addressing the needs of a more complex population. These racial dynamics matter because they shape who has access to third places, who is most burdened by transportation inequities, and how city planning either reinforces or reduces mental health disparities. Understanding these patterns is essential for designing equitable third places that reflect each city’s unique demographic and historical context.
Figure 3: Race Distribution by City
Income
Income inequality in Detroit, Philadelphia, and Houston significantly impacts access to third places, with disparities in earnings determining who can engage in community life.
Detroit faces challenges for lower-income residents in accessing social spaces. Philadelphia, with a median income of $61,621, has a broad income range ($13,721–$250,001), while Houston, with the highest median income ($71,382), still experiences significant income disparities ($11,592–$250,001). These income gaps create barriers to accessing third places, particularly for low-income individuals. The distribution of third places, whether free, affordable, or expensive—shows that financial barriers disproportionately limit access to social spaces that foster connections and improve mental health. To address these disparities, expanding free, publicly available spaces and increasing affordable options is essential for creating more inclusive communities where all residents can benefit from third places social and health advantages.
Poverty
Poverty levels in Detroit, Philadelphia, and Houston reveal significant challenges related to access to third places, transportation, and mental health benefits. High poverty rates often limit access to affordable or free social spaces such as parks, libraries, and community centers, critical for fostering community engagement and emotional well-being.
In low-income areas, these third places are often underfunded, poorly maintained, or unevenly distributed, making them physically or financially inaccessible. In Detroit, where the poverty rate is highest (30%) and affects 18% of the population, residents face particularly limited access to quality third places. With a 21% poverty rate, Philadelphia faces similar spatial and resource-based inequalities. While Houston has a lower poverty rate (15%), it still accounts for 55% of the below-poverty population across the three cities, reflecting a large absolute number of individuals missing out on critical social infrastructure. These disparities highlight the urgent need for targeted investments to improve access to transportation and third places in low-income communities. Expanding free, affordable, accessible social spaces can help bridge mental health outcomes across all three cities.
Figure 5: Percentage of Poverty
Conclusion
Equity in access to community spaces, health care, and mental health services means more than adding parks or clinics; it means ensuring every resident can safely reach them, afford them, and feel welcome in them. Whether through investing in free or low-cost community spaces, expanding sidewalks and transit, growing a diverse mental health workforce, or protecting affordable insurance coverage, solutions must center the voices and needs of Black communities who have too often been excluded. Cities that commit to removing barriers and reimagining access from neighborhood blocks to bus stops and care centers can help ensure that everyone, regardless of income, ZIP code, or race, has a place to gather, heal, and build a healthier future together.
Footnotes
[1] Carpenter, C. W. (n.d). Detroit. Redlining in Michigan. Michigan State University. https://www.canr.msu.edu/redlining/detroit
[2] SEGREGATION BY DESIGN. (n.d.). PHILADELPHIA: REDLINING. https://www.segregationbydesign.com/philadelphia/redlining
[3] SEGREGATION BY DESIGN. (n.d.). Redlining & Demographics. https://www.segregationbydesign.com/houston/redlining
[4] Congress for the New Urbanism (CNU). (2021). Highways to boulevards. https://www.cnu.org/highways-boulevards/campaign-cities/detroit
[5] Michigan Department of Transportation. (n.d.). I-375 Reconnecting Communities Project. https://www.michigan.gov/mdot/projects-studies/special-construction/i-375-reconnecting-communities-project
[6] City of Philadelphia. (n.d.). City announces design concepts and public workshop for the second phase of the chinatown stitch: A project to reconnect Philadelphia to vine street. Office of Transportation and Infrastructure Systems. https://www.phila.gov/2023-09-05-city-announces-design-concepts-and-public-workshop-for-the-second-phase-of-the-chinatown-stitch-a-project-to-reconnect-philadelphia-to-vine-street/
[7] Chrystie, P. (2021). Reconnecting communities: Department of Planning and Development. City of Philadelphia. https://www.phila.gov/2021-07-13-reconnecting-communities/
[8] Fechter, J. (2023). After a two-year pause, Feds give Texas the go-ahead to resume a major Houston Highway expansion. The Texas Tribune. https://www.texastribune.org/2023/03/07/houston-interstate-45-highway-expansion/
Data Sources
- Caliper Corporation. (2024). Business Locations by Category [GIS dataset]. Included with Maptitude 2024. Caliper Corporation.
- Distance to nearest transit stop in 2021. PolicyMap, https://plcy.mp/2RxD19lw (based on data from EPA Smart Location Database; Accessed 13 October 2024).
- Average annual dollars spent out of pocket per person on medical care in 2022. PolicyMap, https://www.policymap.com/newmaps/e/uta/s/5002/7c381a12fdf0b960c610c738e92249be (based on data from PolicyMap and Quantitative Innovations; Accessed 6 February 2025).
- Crude percent of depression among adults in 2022. PolicyMap, https://www.policymap.com/newmaps/e/uta/s/5012/039086e6da297368e960ad486b1c6ed8 (based on data from CDC_PLACES; Accessed 6 February 2025).
- Crude percent of feeling socially isolated among adults in 2022. PolicyMap, https://www.policymap.com/newmaps/e/uta/s/5014/f89939c831ba45276fb78d3e2a48993f (based on data from CDC_PLACES; Accessed 6 February 2025).
- Crude percent of lack of social and emotional support among adults in 2022. PolicyMap, https://www.policymap.com/newmaps/e/uta/s/5015/3b081ab0e6b03e902ccceebf1db8bcce (based on data from CDC_PLACES; Accessed 6 February 2025).
- Full Time Equivalent mental health professionals as of 2023. PolicyMap, https://plcy.mp/2WGWdCT2 (based on data from HRSA; Accessed 6 February 2025).
- IPUMS NHGIS, University of Minnesota, www.nhgis.org
- Mental Health Treatment Facilities. PolicyMap, https://plcy.mp/2sNBNrNX (based on data from SAMHSA; Accessed 6 February 2025).